Establishing Water Buffaloes as a Promising Source of Red Meat in Pursuit of Sustainable Animal Proteins for a Better World

Introduction

The domestic water buffalo, scientifically known as Bubalus bubalis, is a large-sized, cloven-footed ruminant animal of the family Bovidae. It is closely related to domestic cattle on the phylogenetic tree (Maheswarappa et al., 2022). This species is indigenous to the Asian and African subcontinents. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has identified buffalo as an “undervalued” strategic asset (Nanda and Nakao, 2003). After cattle, water buffaloes rank as the second most significant large-ruminant species in the world, and they are primarily raised for milk, meat, hides, and draught purposes. Water buffaloes that are no longer useful for draught work or dairy production (spent animals) are typically used to produce buffalo meat in India, which is generally known as “cara beef,” whereas it is marketed as “beef” in the international market, mainly Vietnam, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Iraq (Naveena et al., 2011). The contribution of water buffalo meat to food security in Asia and the Middle East is substantial (Naveena and Kiran, 2014). The increasing demand for affordable buffalo meat effectively addresses a significant issue pertaining to food security in these regions. The growing demand presents equitable prospects for small-scale and landless agricultural workers to engage in global food markets, consequently fostering a conducive atmosphere for poverty alleviation and the enhancement of rural livelihoods in developing nations, in accordance with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG; United Nations, 2015; Shehata et al., 2022). Their significance within the global food sector has demonstrated a consistent upward trajectory, as evidenced by a multitude of scholarly publications (e.g., Naveena et al., 2004; Borghese and Mazzi, 2005; Neath et al., 2007a, 2007b; Minervino et al., 2020; Maheswarappa et al., 2022). Currently, water buffalo meat is available in economical segments of food markets, and water buffalo milk has a noteworthy function within the culinary domain, as demonstrated by its usage in the production of mozzarella cheese (Brescia et al., 2005; López-Calleja et al., 2005). Moreover, they function as a fiscally viable means of obtaining animal protein that offers nutritional advantages.

Water buffalo meat, known for its exceptional nutritional profile and environmentally friendly production methods, plays a crucial role in addressing the increasing protein needs of a rapidly expanding global population (Tamburrano et al., 2019; Minervino et al., 2020). As per the United Nations (2019), it is projected that the world’s human population will attain 9.7 billion by 2050. This significant increase in population size is expected to result in a notable rise in the need for quality proteins. With the evolution of diets, particularly in developing nations, there arises a growing demand for protein sources that are both affordable and sustainable. The utilization of water buffalo meat is a feasible alternative owing to its advantageous nutritional composition, widespread accessibility, and reduced ecological impact in comparison to other large ruminants (Maheswarappa et al., 2022). The water buffalo population, which is predominantly concentrated in places such as Asia, Africa, and South America, plays a large role in global meat production (FAOSTAT, 2021). According to recent findings (Guerrero-Legarreta et al., 2020), consumers’ acceptance of buffalo meat is changing as they become more aware of its nutritional advantages. The export market for buffalo meat has witnessed significant expansion, with nations such as India, Brazil, and Vietnam emerging as notable contributors to the export trade (FAOSTAT, 2021). The increasing popularity of buffalo meat is observable not only in its consumption within the domestic circle but also in its recognition and escalating requests in global markets. The increasing body of research and ongoing market trends suggest that buffalo meat is poised to play a more prominent role in satisfying the changing demands of consumers on a global scale (Wanapat et al., 2011). The current review provides a comprehensive overview of the water buffalo origin, distribution, slaughter, carcass and meat quality, composition, processing, and advances in the area of buffalo meat research to foster innovation and possible global collaborations for shaping the sustainable animal protein sector.

Geographical Distribution and Characterization of Major Water Buffalo Breeds

Domestic cattle (Bos taurus or Bos indicus) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are 2 distinct species; however, they both belong to the same family Bovidae and are phylogenetically related. Cattle is a primary bovine species, which is widely utilized for meat production in most parts of the world; however, there are other species—like the domestic water buffalo—belonging to the Bovidae family that are extensively utilized for meat production in Asia and to a lesser extent in Africa, South America, and Europe. The domestic buffalo, often referred to as the water buffalo, is distinct from the American bison (Bison bison), a wild animal that is often mistaken and incorrectly identified as a buffalo (Maheswarappa et al., 2022).

The water buffalo, also referred to as domestic Asian buffaloes, are divided into 2 subspecies: the river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis bubalis) and the swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabanesis). These types have 25 and 24 pairs of chromosomes, respectively. Although the precise evolutionary relationship between these species is yet unknown, the fusion of chromosomes 4 and 9 in swamp buffalo (Yavasoglu et al., 2014) demonstrates the genetic heterogeneity that exists among these 2 types. Another lesser-known buffalo species, the African buffalo, can be classified into 2 distinct subspecies, specifically the cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) and the forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus). The cape buffalo is characterized by its possession of 26 pairs of chromosomes, while a forest buffalo exhibits 27 pairs (El-Debaky et al., 2019). Researchers must rely on genomic data from cattle because the genome sequence of both types of water buffalo are available in scaffolds on the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) platform. This highlights the need for high-resolution sequencing of the buffalo genome using cutting-edge research tools like transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and lipidomics (El-Debaky et al., 2019). The genetic populations of river buffalo exhibit global distribution patterns that can be attributed to many migration events occurring at different historical and spatial scales (Colli et al., 2018). The river buffalo is the prevailing species, encompassing a range of breeds including Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Mediterranean, and Carabao (Olivatto et al., 2013). The majority of these demographics, comprising more than 80%, are concentrated in India, Pakistan, and China, while a minority of less than 5% are dispersed over non-Asian regions. According to FAOSTAT (2021), the current distribution of the world buffalo population is predominantly concentrated in Asia, accounting for around 97% of the total population. The buffalo herds in Asia frequently depend on low-quality roughages and leftover crops that have little nutritional value, leading to decreased productive and reproductive performances (Qureshi, 2009). However, water buffaloes are very good at converting poor-quality feed into high-quality milk and meat (Deb et al., 2016). Differences in production capacity give rise to discernible production systems in river and swamp buffaloes (Aziz et al., 2014).

Buffaloes predominantly inhabit tropical and subtropical climates, exhibiting adaptability to diverse grasses and vegetation. The global demographic distribution of buffaloes in major buffalo-producing countries is shown in Table 1. The prominent nations engaged in buffalo production globally include India, Pakistan, China, Nepal, Myanmar, Egypt, the Philippines, and Vietnam. India is widely recognized as the primary global producer of buffalo meat, with Pakistan and China occupying subsequent positions in terms of production. Globally, there has been a 22.48% increase in the buffalo population between the years 2000 and 2020; however, buffaloes still account for only 0.28% of the total livestock population. The Murrah breed, which has its origin in India, is widely recognized for its exceptional capacity for meat production, characterized by well-developed musculature and high-quality meat (Mello et al., 2017). The Nili-Ravi breed, originating from India and Pakistan, is known for its exceptional meat yield and marbling, rendering it a very desirable choice within the meat market (Mahkdoom et al., 2009). The Mediterranean buffalo breed, which is commonly found in Italy, Romania, and Egypt, is mostly exploited for dairy production; however, it also exhibits favorable meat qualities such as tenderness and juiciness (Hassan et al., 2018). The Carabao breed, which is indigenous to the Philippines, is highly esteemed for its meat characteristics. It possesses lean and palatable meat that is well-suited for a wide range of culinary uses (Ortega et al., 2021). The breeds exhibit variation in terms of their geographical distribution. The Murrah and Nili-Ravi buffalo breeds are mostly distributed in the Indian subcontinent, whereas the Mediterranean buffalo breed is more commonly found in the Mediterranean region and certain areas of Africa. The Carabao, however, is primarily found in Southeast Asia, with a specific concentration in the Philippines (Dehkordi et al., 2014; Colli et al., 2018).

Augmenting Meat Quality and Nutritional Characteristics

Slaughter, Carcass Traits, Composition, and Meat Quality

Slaughtering and carcass traits

After proper preslaughter care and antemortem examination, water buffaloes are moved to a slaughter hall and restrained using a stunning box, which is designed in such a manner to effectively restrict the free movement of animals, with the primary objective of ensuring the precise stunning and bleeding. A double rotary type killing box with motorized rotation and pneumatic/hydraulic operated doors, fully constructed of hot dip galvanized iron (SS304 grade), is employed in several buffalo slaughterhouses in India and other countries (Figure 1). Restrained water buffaloes are either stunned using captive bolt stunning or electrical stunning or directly bled using a sharp knife by severing the major neck blood vessels, namely the carotid artery and jugular vein at the C1–C3 (cervical vertebra) level. After bleeding, carcasses are subjected to electrical stunning with either low-voltage or high-voltage electric current (Muthukumar and Thulasi, 2006) followed by dehiding, head removal, evisceration, postmortem inspection, carcass trimming, washing, chilling, and fabrication (Figure 2). Dressed carcasses can undergo 3 primary methods of processing such as processed whole, split into halves (sides), or cut into quarters (fore quarter and hind quarter). Routinely, buffalo carcasses are fabricated into primal cuts. Primal cuts are frequently split into sub-primal cuts, which are typically vacuum sealed, frozen, or packaged fresh. Subsequently, portion cuts will be produced by sub-primal cuts as required.

Figure 1.

Double rotary stunning/killing box for water buffaloes (photo courtesy of MEATEK Food Machineries India Private Limited, India).

Figure 2.

Primary processing steps in water buffalo slaughter, dressing, and fabrication.

The average weight of a commercial water buffalo carcass in India is 62 kg to 139 kg (Singh et al., 2013); however, in a few countries, carcass weights ranging from 150 kg and 290 kg have been reported (Lambertz et al., 2014). Several studies have indicated that the dressing percentage of buffalo carcasses is similar to that of beef, ranging from 45% to 68% (Kumagai et al., 2012; Lambertz et al., 2014; Naveena and Kiran, 2014; Di Stasio and Brugiapaglia, 2021). Larger head and skin weight of Murrah buffaloes (21.0 kg and 53.2 kg) relative to Bulgarian cattle (19.0 kg and 47.0 kg) have been reported at 24–25 mo of age (Valin et al., 1984). Water buffaloes have shorter body and carcass lengths than cattle at 10 mo with a larger rump due to their thick and short quadriceps (Spanghero et al., 2004). Buffalo carcasses produce a greater yield of primal cuts, such as round cuts with a high commercial value relative to cattle carcasses (Mello et al., 2017). The variation in the ribeye area of water buffaloes, ranging from 40 to 70 cm², has been documented. In general, a lower ribeye area of 50.92 cm² was reported in water buffalo carcasses compared to 62.16 to 76.90 cm² in beef cattle at 24 mo of age (Latimori et al., 1997; Irurueta et al., 2008).

Meat quality

Water buffalo meat exhibits a large similarity to beef in terms of its composition, quality, and organoleptic characteristics while demonstrating comparatively higher iron content (Rodas-González and Huerta-Leidenz, 2023b). An overview of water buffalo meat quality and factors influencing different attributes has been depicted in Figure 3. The inherent characteristics of buffalo meat, including its color, tenderness, flavor, and juiciness, have a significant impact on customer preferences and the dynamics of the meat market. Buffalo meat is still regarded by the FAO (FAO, 2000) as a valuable and under-appreciated commodity. The color of buffalo meat, which serves as a visual indicator of its freshness and quality, is determined by the status and concentration of the myoglobin (Mb) pigment. The deep and intense red color of buffalo meat is related to its increased Mb concentration and oxygen-binding capacity. A higher Mb content in the Longissimus muscles, ranging from 2.36 mg/g to 3.59 mg/g, was linked to the darker color of the buffalo meat (Kiran et al., 2016). Variations of Mb content ranging from 2.7 mg/g to 9.4 mg/g depending upon the type of the muscle and age and an increase in darkness of meat with age have been reported (Valin et al., 1984). Maheswarappa et al. (2016) evaluated the molecular mass (17,043.6 daltons) and isoelectric point (6.77) of isolated Mb using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and an OFFGEL fractionator and concluded that buffalo Mb had greater redox stability than caprine (goat) Mb. After comparing the O₂ dissociation curves of purified bovine and buffalo Mb at pH 7.2 under the same experimental conditions, Dosi et al. (2006) came to the conclusion that the higher discoloration rate of buffalo Mb might be caused by larger Mb concentrations compared to beef as well as other species-specific variables. Fresh and frozen buffalo meat from various age groups were observed to have redness scores (a* values) ranging from 12.0 to 20.0 (Tateo et al., 2007; Irurueta et al., 2008; Naveena et al., 2011).

Figure 3.

An overview of buffalo meat quality and factors influencing different attributes.

The palatability of meat is significantly influenced by tenderness, which is particularly pronounced in buffalo meat. This can be attributed to the distinctive composition of buffalo muscle fibers, which possess a finer structure and relatively low levels of collagen (Naveena et al., 2011; Kiran et al., 2016). The pH range of buffalo meat is commonly observed to fall within the values of 5.4 and 5.6. Previous research has indicated that buffalo meat has a lower pH compared to beef (Valin et al., 1984; Spanghero et al., 2004; Lapitan et al., 2008; Kiran et al., 2016). Neath et al. (2007a) observed a relatively higher pH of water buffalo meat during the first 48 h postmortem, resulting in significantly higher calpain activity, and no discernible differences in calpastatin activity were seen between water buffalo meat and beef (Neath et al., 2007b). Sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar protein extractabilities have been found to be 65–68 mg/g protein and 148–160 mg/g protein, respectively, whereas the average water-holding capacity (WHC) has been reported to be between 14% and 23% (Kiran et al., 2015). The Biceps femoris muscles of spent female buffaloes were found to contain 0.67 mg/g of collagen with a 45% solubility (Naveena et al., 2011).

Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) readings varying from 22.95 N to 33.45 N (Longissimus dorsi), 40.35 N to 41.64 N (Biceps femoris), 25.93 N to 27.13 N (Gluteus medius), 29.0 N to 32.03 N (Gastrocnemius), 38.08 N to 41.28 N (Semimembranosus), and 40.52 N to 44.98 N (Semitendinosus) were reported in castrated male buffaloes subjected to postmortem aging for 25 d (Irurueta et al., 2007). Kiran et al. (2015) have observed an average muscle fiber diameter of 44.22 μ and a sarcomere length of 1.70 μ in Longissimus lumborum (LL) muscles in spent female buffaloes of more than 10 y of age. Numerous investigations have identified several markers pertaining to tenderness, marbling, and muscle growth in different food animals. These include the calpain gene, calpastatin gene, calpain I gene (Warner et al., 2010), leptin gene, thyroglobulin gene, myogenic regulatory factors (Hernández-Hernández et al., 2017), and IGF1R polymorphisms (Hoopes et al., 2012). An in-depth investigation into the genetic markers associated with the economically important characteristics of buffalo meat has been reviewed by El-Debaky et al. (2019).

Buffalo Meat Proteomics

An overview of the application of proteomic tools in buffalo meat quality and authenticity is depicted in Figure 4. Proteins that influence the tenderness or toughness of buffalo meat that serve as potential biomarkers have been identified (Kiran et al., 2016). Proteomic studies allowed the identification of proteins including calcium/calmodulin-dependent 3, calcium-transporting ATPase type 2C, vitamin K-dependent protein Z precursor, and 5-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase type 1B related to buffalo meat texture (Kiran et al., 2016). Potential biomarkers for buffalo meat quality include heat shock protein beta-1, Aspartate aminotransferase, Uroplakin-1b, Glycogen phosphorylase, Complement C1q subcomponent subunit B, Myosin-IIIa, Cytosolic carboxypeptidase 3, and Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta isoform (Kiran et al., 2015). Buffalo meat from young (<2 y) and old (>10 y) animals were studied to determine the biochemical, ultrastructural, and proteomic profile of Longissimus dorsi muscles (Kiran et al., 2015). Using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE), these researchers have identified 93 proteins that differed between aged and young buffalo meat samples. The 2-DE proteome studies of buffalo meat from young and old after 6 d of aging showed 191 and 95 differentially expressed protein spots, respectively. A MALDI-TOF/TOF MS analysis was conducted on a subset of gel spots in order to identify structural proteins, which are molecular indicators for tenderness (Kiran et al., 2015). In another study, Kiran et al. (2016) examined the variations in meat quality between the less tender (LL) and more tender (Psoas major [PM]) muscles in Indian water buffaloes. The 2-DE proteome analysis of PM and LL yielded 123 proteins that differed in abundance between the 2 samples. There was a significant difference in the MALDI-TOF-TOF MS analysis of selected protein spots from LL and PM with substantial changes in protein composition. Research has shown that the 2-DE characteristics of buffalo and goat Mb differ, which was determined using OFFGEL electrophoresis. Covalent alteration of 7 and 9 histidine residues in water buffalo and goat Mb further supports the possibility of interaction with a lipid-derived aldehyde (HNE) by water buffalo Mb. The results indicate that water buffalo Mb is less susceptible than goat Mb to the redox destabilizing action of HNE (Maheswarappa et al., 2016).

Figure 4.

Illustration of proteomic tools and their applications for understanding water buffalo meat quality and safety.

Proteomics can also be efficiently employed for meat authenticity studies. The study conducted by Naveena et al. (2017) demonstrated the ability to detect the presence of buffalo meat adulteration in sheep meat at levels as low as 0.5% in meat mixes. The identification of the species was accomplished by employing species-specific peptides obtained from MLC-1, namely EAFLLFDRTGECK (water buffalo) and EAFLLYDRTGDGK (sheep), respectively, and MLC-2, namely FSKEEIK (water buffalo) and FSQEEIR (sheep). Using 2-DE (in-gel) and OFFGEL electrophoresis in conjunction with MALDI-TOF MS, up to 1.0% substitution of sheep and goat meat in buffalo meat was detected using the in-gel method, while the OFFGEL approach detected up to 0.1% substitution of sheep and goat meat in buffalo meat (Naveena et al., 2018). Researchers reported that OFFGEL and gel-eluted liquid fraction entrapment electrophoresis (GELFrEE) procedures may be used to separate proteins that are relatively low in abundance. It has been found that the GELFrEE 8100 cartridges can effectively fractionate entire buffalo meat proteins within a mass range of 10–240 kDa, 10–140 kDa, and 5%–12% GELFrEE 8100 cartridges (Maheswarappa et al., 2020). A peptidomic approach using simple GELFrEE and MALDI-TOF MS was developed for authentication of adulteration of water buffalo meat with pork under raw and cooked conditions up to 0.5% w/w (Banerjee et al., 2023). These researchers have demonstrated the heat stability of water buffalo-specific peptide markers derived from Mb (HPGDFGADAQGAMSK) and carbonic anhydrase-3 (GGPLTAAYR).

Interventions to Enhance Water Buffalo Meat Quality

Water buffalo meat color, tenderness, flavor, and juiciness play a crucial role in determining consumer acceptance. Researchers have reported the effect of postmortem aging/conditioning, muscle and pH effect, marination, and electrical stimulation for improving the tenderness of buffalo meat. Improved tenderness of buffalo carcasses subjected to high-voltage electrical stimulation (700 V, 1400 V peak, 60 Hz, 2 A) at 24 h postmortem was reported (Soares et al., 1995). These researchers have observed an acceleration of the aging process in electrically stimulated carcasses to 3 d compared to 6 d in non-stimulated carcasses. Similarly, the application of electrical stimulation after the slaughter process was reported to expedite the pH reduction, thereby facilitating enzymatic breakdown that plays a role in the tenderization of meat that has been reported (Neath et al., 2007a). Postmortem aging of Longissimus thoracis muscles from 32- to 36-month-old water buffalo during 21 d was reported to significantly reduce the WBSF values from 85.91 N to 48.64 N (Luz et al., 2017). However, in younger buffaloes of 20 to 24 mo of age, these researchers have reported a reduction in WBSF values from 59.62 N to 26.38 N during 21 d of aging in Longissimus thoracis muscles. The study concluded that 7 d of aging is optimum for younger (20 to 24 mo) buffaloes relative to 21 d of aging for older (32 to 36 mo) male Murrah buffaloes from Brazil. Similarly, Irurueta et al. (2008) observed a reduction in WBSF from 33.45 N to 22.95 N during 25 d of aging in water buffalo meat. Rajagopal and Oommen (2015) observed a strong correlation between myofibrillar fragmentation index (MFI) and WBSF in Longissimus dorsi muscles from 4- to 5-year-old male water buffalo aged at 2–4°C for 8 d and concluded that MFI is an immediate postmortem predictor of buffalo meat tenderness, and significant tenderization occurs during the first 24 h of postmortem aging. Pressure cooking of Semimebranosus muscles from spent female buffalo was reported to cause loss of integrity in the endomysium and perimysium layers (Vasanthi et al., 2007). Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale) marinade mixed with buffalo meat cubes was reported to reduce the shear force from 40.52 to 21.70 N while improving the cooking yield (Naveena and Mendiratta, 2005). Proteolytic enzymes from Cucumis trigonus Roxb (Kachri), ginger rhizome, and papain in Biceps femoris muscle chunks of spent buffaloes were reported to increase in sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar protein extractability and collagen solubility and reduce the shear force values relative to distilled water treated control (Naveena et al., 2004). Marination of Biceps femoris muscle chunks with 0.1%, 0.5%. and 1.0% v/w solution of ammonium hydroxide for 48 h at 4 ± 1°C has been reported to increase the WHC, total and salt soluble protein extractability, and collagen solubility and significantly reduce the WBSF values from 140 to 80 N (Naveena et al., 2011).

Value Addition of Buffalo Meat and Sensory Attributes

A significant number of buffaloes in the Asian continent undergo slaughter once they become infertile and stop producing milk, thereby resulting in tough and coarse meat (Naveena et al., 2011). Water buffalo meat is normally consumed in Asia as hot meat without subjecting it to further processing. Hence, converting into value-added meat products offers better opportunities for economic utilization. The 2% NaCl and 0.5% polyphosphate pre-blend into minced buffalo meat was reported to improve the emulsion stability, emulsifying capacity (EC), and cooking yield (Anjaneyulu et al., 1990). These researchers have evaluated different polyphosphates and concluded that the use of sodium pyrophosphate was highly effective in improving the pH, WHC, emulsion stability, protein extractability, cooking yield, and moisture content when used at 0.3 to 0.7% level. It has been reported that pre-blending minced buffalo meat with α-tocopherol acetate, sodium ascorbate, and sodium tripolyphosphate, followed by vacuum packaging and storage at 4°C, improves the meat’s quality, shelf life, and color stability (Sahoo and Anjaneyulu, 1997). The processing of emulsion and restructured buffalo meat nuggets and their quality evaluation have been reported by Thomas et al. (2006).

The addition of buffalo fat to comminuted meat products has been found to have an impact on palatability due to increased saturation and inadequate fat distribution within the emulsion, leading to tongue coating (Pati et al., 1992). Hence, researchers have suggested the use of fat pre-mixes (Pati et al., 1992), refined mustard oil (Sahoo and Verma, 1999), and hydrocolloid fat substitutes like 0.1% sodium alginate and 0.75% carrageenan (Suman and Sharma, 2003). A low-fat burger made from comminuted buffalo meat has been successfully produced, incorporating several decorticated legume flours such as soya bean, Bengal gram, green gram, and black gram as binders with satisfactory quality (Modi et al., 2003). Ripening sausages from buffalo meat by adding pork fat (Luccia et al., 2003) and semi-dry fermented sausages containing different levels of buffalo heart and buffalo fat (Ahmad and Srivastava, 2007) have been reported. Curing and salting rump cuts from water buffalo hindquarters produced Bresaola, an Italian cold-cut food designated as a Geographic Protected Indication (GPI) (Paleari et al., 2000). Buffalo meat cubes that were shelf-stable were processed by adding sorbic acid, glycerol, sodium nitrite, sorbide, propylene glycol, and honey. They were then heated to 80°C for 20 min and then dried for 150 min at 80°C (Malik and Sharma, 2014). Due to its leanness, lower intramuscular fat, cholesterol, and calories, higher units of essential amino acids, biological value, and iron content, water buffalo meat has become more popular as the demand for lean red meat has increased (Anjaneyulu et al., 1990). It has been observed that water buffalo meat and beef from similar age groups have almost identical palatability traits, shear force values, and taste panel ratings (Ognjanovic, 1974). According to Lapitan et al. (2007), the marbling score, firmness, tenderness, and WHC of buffalo meat were all similar to those of cattle beef.

Valorization of Water Buffalo Co-Products

The utilization of buffalo slaughter co-products has emerged as a noteworthy economic and public health issue. Processing of various carcass by-products encompasses around 15 unique industries, covering areas such as food, pharmaceuticals, leather, biochemicals, sports, dairy, cosmetics, animal feed, detergents, handicrafts, and fat refining. Water buffalo slaughter co-products and a few commercially available value-added products have been depicted in Figure 5. The proportion of edible co-products (head, liver, feet, heart, stomach, kidney, and fat) and inedible co-products (blood, skin, intestine, and lungs) in relation to the live weight of buffalo ranges from 25% to 30%. The gastrointestinal tract (25–27%) was found to contribute the highest percentage of co-products, followed by the skin (9–11%) (Muthukumar et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2018). The liver of water buffalo could be employed commercially for the preparation of acceptable minced meat products (Devatkal et al., 2004). Buffalo hide is excellent, robust, and reasonably priced leather that may be processed into shoe soles and other leather goods. Acid pre-treatment of buffalo hide and production of industry-standard gelatin has been reported by Mulyani et al. (2017). Extraction and characterization of chondroitin sulfate (CS) from buffalo tracheal, nasal, and joint cartilages have been reported by Sundaresan et al. (2018). Buffalo skin strips that have been softened with inedible fat can be woven into robust, attractive, and durable ropes. Buffalo hides are utilized in certain regions of Indonesia, Thailand, and Nepal to produce delicious buffalo chips. Massive buffalo horns are used to create a range of ornamental and decorative items. A musical instrument named tetuag is made in Malaysia using buffalo horns (Maheswarappa et al., 2022). Different varieties of pet treats were made from bleached ears, food pipes, dried tails, dried udder, bladder flat, hooves, neckband, Achilles tendon, pizzle, etc. Besides these, bleached braided skin, bleached head skin roll, bleached head skin, bleached press bone, bleached twisted stick, metatarsal bone bleach, etc., were also made from buffalo slaughter co-products. Rendering of offals and slaughter waste produces meat and bone meal with 48–52% protein, 33–35% ash, 8–12% fat, and 4–7% moisture, which is mainly used in the formulation of poultry and aquaculture feed. Extraction and characterization of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory peptides from water buffalo liver has been recently reported by Maheswarappa et al. (2022). The optimal utilization of co-products from the buffalo sector is imperative in order to satisfy the increasing need for animal proteins and extraction of high-value hydrolysates and biostimulants will offer great scope in food supplements, nutraceuticals, and human nutrition.

Figure 5.

Buffalo meat industry co-products and their valorisation approaches.

Water Buffaloes—Promising Candidates for Sustainable and Circular Production

An expanding cohort of conscientious consumers places an emphasis on ethical and environmentally responsible food selection, thereby guiding the industry to adopt sustainable and circular practices. To a large extent, Asiatic water buffaloes are reared under free-range, natural conditions, mostly feeding on locally available feed resources like coarse feed, sugar cane waste, straw, and crop residues. Because of their capacity to convert and digest low-quality feed, buffaloes have been shown to yield higher milk/meat than other bovine species in tropical or subtropical areas with poor pasture quality (Ranjhan, 1992). This suggests that buffaloes are climate-friendly animals that can produce excellent meat and milk from low-quality feed without the need for supplement concentrates (Hamid et al., 2016). Buffalo production is dominated by marginal farmers, small-holders, and women who contribute primarily to small-scale operations, and buffaloes as a species have desirable qualities (Choudhary and Sirohi, 2019). The local production and consumption practices and preference for hot meat followed in India and many other Asian countries ensure reduced water footprints and lower food miles. Buffaloes exhibit remarkable adaptations to thrive in hot and humid floodplain environments, hence assuming a significant economic role in numerous tropical and subtropical nations. These animals are highly adaptable under resource-poor tropical conditions, exhibit a higher degree of resistance to diseases, and survive with minimal housing and managemental conditions (Cockrill, 1981). Buffaloes serve multiple purposes, including the provision of milk, meat, manure, and draught power, hence making a substantial contribution towards the attainment of several SDG. The water buffalo sector contributes to fulfilling social benefits (zero hunger, good health, and well-being), economic resilience (no poverty, quality education, gender equality, decent work, and economic growth), and environmentally responsible (responsible consumption and production, climate action) objectives of SDG. Buffaloes exhibit a range of desirable traits that contribute to sustainable livestock production, including disease resistance, enhanced digestibility of low-quality pasture, adaptability to diverse climatic conditions, and rapid growth and weight gain, highlighting the versatility and positive impact of buffaloes in the context of sustainable livestock production (Maheswarappa et al., 2022). Sustainable production methods can be fostered by boosting the use of water buffalo meat from spent and unproductive animals, which will improve the ecological balance and resilience of agricultural landscapes. Adoption of scientific practices and disruptive technologies, improved breeding and feeding practices, optimal realization of both meat and dairy commodities with control, and eradication of transboundary animal diseases through one-health approaches may further enhance the role of buffaloes in fulfilling SDG.

There is great potential for male buffalo calf (MBC) salvaging and rearing for meat in India. There are about 18–20 million MBC available per annum, and most of them perish without their full economic potential being realized. Buffalo calf mortality is abnormally high, as farmers do not provide adequate milk to calves and do not give adequate health care such as deworming and management of calves. Due to the age restrictions by various state governments in India on the slaughter of steers for meat purposes, raising the male calves until 10 y is non-remunerative. With positive slaughter-policy interventions, even if 50% of these MBC are salvaged and grown to a live weight of 200–300 kg, they would produce an additional 1.0 million tonnes (MT) boneless meat, which is worth Rs 30,000 crores (∼5 billion USD). However, exclusive government schemes to support these activities must be launched, and state governments must amend the existing rules to slaughter male buffalo steers (Naveena et al., 2021). This will further enhance the sustainability of water buffalo production in India.

Conclusion

The strategy for meeting the burgeoning global demand for animal proteins in the coming years involves the integration of nutrition, economics, and culture. Water buffaloes, with their multiple uses and versatility, may serve as sustainable and circular alternatives to other red meat sources. From an economic standpoint, it wields substantial influence inside rural communities, fostering the advancement of livelihoods and aiding economic expansion. The trajectory of buffalo meat in the future is characterized by a complex journey that involves various problems, possibilities, and transformational advancements. The utilization of genomic selection as a breeding strategy presents a prospective approach to selectively enhance the meat and milk characteristics of buffaloes while concurrently preserving their inherent adaptability to hotter and more humid climates. The development of desired meat qualities must be furthered through advanced omics research while remaining consistent with sustainability standards. The integration of sustainable practices, salvaging of MBC, disruptive technologies, and innovative research will reshape the industry’s environment, establishing a domain in which buffalo meat emerges as a high-quality, ethically conscious, and environmentally sustainable option for conscientious consumers. The future prospects of buffalo meat are contingent upon the intersection of research and innovation.